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Steller sea lion biology > Steller sea lion fast facts
Steller sea lion steller fast facts
Common Name Steller sea lion, Steller's sea lion, northern sea lion
Scientic Name Eumetopias jubatus
Body Size Male Steller sea lions average, a nose-to-tail length of 3 m and weigh about 700 kg.

Female Steller sea lions average 2.3 m in length and weigh about 300 kg.

Steller sea lions weigh about 20 kg when born (male pups are usually larger than female pups). (see Steller sea lion comparision chart)
Physical Characteristics:

                          		 Coloring: When dry, Steller sea lions are a tan to golden-brown color and darken to a chocolate brown on their flippers and underside. They appear dark brown or black when wet.
  Coat: Male Steller sea lions have a thick mane. To protect themselves from the cold temperatures and from jagged rocks, Steller sea lions have thick coarse fur when dry, and smooth, slick fur that lies flat against the skin when wet. Stellers molt for about 4 weeks in the late summer, or early fall.
  Insulation: Blubber is the main form of insulation of Steller sea lions.
  Whiskers: Steller sea lions, like all pinnipeds, have well-developed facial whiskers which they use to sense prey and feel their way underwater.
Sounds Steller sea lions make a low roaring sound.
Habitat Steller sea lions range throughout the Pacific Rim (from southern California to Northern Honshu in Japan, and to the Bering Strait). About 70 percent of the Steller sea lion population resides in Alaska.

Steller sea lions are highly gregarious and they use traditional haulout sites (an area used for resting) and rookeries (an area used for breeding and rearing young) on remote and exposed islands. These sites can be rock shelves, ledges, boulders, and gravel or sand beaches.
Climate Steller sea lions prefer temperate climates.
Diet Adult Steller sea lions eat a wide variety of fishes, including Pacific herring, sandlance, Atka mackerel, pollock, salmon, cod, and rockfishes. They also eat octopus and some squids. On average, an adult Steller sea lion requires about six per cent of its body weight each day. Young sea lions require twice this amount. See diet for more.
Predators The main predators of Steller sea lions are killer whales, sharks and humans.

 

 

Reproduction

They mate and give birth on land.

Births occur mid-May to mid-July and peak in June.

In May, dominant males (nine years and older) establish their breeding territories on rookeries, and maintain them for approximately 40 days without eating. During this time, the males establish a harem and mate with many females on their territories, demonstrating their polygamous nature.

Mating occurs soon after the birth of the previous year's pups.

The pups drink their mother's milk, and they enter the water at four to six weeks.

Some pups will nurse from one to three years, but most are believed to wean before their first birthday.

Females give birth to one pup and may not give birth every year.

Pups are able to crawl and swim soon after birth.

Females accept only their pups, recognizing their pup's vocal and olfactory cues.

Pups will approach other females, but are often bitten or thrown by females who have their own pups.

Males defend territories for an average of two years.

There is a high incidence of aborted Steller sea lion fetuses in the wild.

Pups are sometimes killed or injured from: a storm washing them away from a rookery, by adults tossing, biting, or crushing them, or by abandonment and disease.

 

Are Steller sea lions always in the water?

 Steller sea lions are mammals, so they need to come to the surface to breathe air. They spend a portion of their time on the land and venture out in the water to hunt for food. Steller sea lions appear to prefer the coastal shelf region within 45 km of the shore, although they can be found over 100 km from the shore in waters exceeding 2,000 m deep. They do not migrate like some seals, but they do move seasonally to different feeding and resting areas.
Threatened Species Since 1980, more than 75 per cent of the Steller sea lion population has disappeared, leaving the current wild population with less than 75,000 individuals. In 1990, Steller sea lions were listed as "threatened" under the United States Endangered Species Act. In 1997, the U.S. National Marine Fisheries Service reclassified some populations of Steller sea lions in Alaska as "endangered".
Why are Steller sea lions disappearing? Scientists are currently researching why Steller sea lion populations are declining. Possible reasons for this include an increase in parasites, disease, predation by killer whales, quality and distribution of food, environmental factors and nutritional stress caused by natural changes in the abundance of key prey species, or by competition with other species or humans for food.

 

The North Pacific Universities Marine Mammal Research Consortium

 In 1993 the North Pacific Universities Marine Mammal Research Consortium, began to study the declining population of Steller sea lions. The Consortium is a group of graduate students and faculty members from the universities of Alaska, British Columbia, Washington and Oregon State. These researchers have undertaken a combination of field, captive and lab studies for research. The studies emphasize the effects of changes in types of prey on sea lion condition, health and energy balance. You can learn more about the Consortium on this web site.

 

Steller sea lions or harbour seals?

Steller sea lions are larger and have longer flippers. They are very vocal, territorial and can be aggressive with one another.

Sea lions are also able to support themselves on their front two flippers and can pull their hind flippers under their bodies to walk.

Sea lions swim with their front flippers, while seals swim with their hind flippers.

Seals have a smaller and sleeker torpedo shaped body. They rarely vocalize, are quite shy and are less gregarious than sea lions.

Seals do not use their flippers to support their bodies and move by sliding or shuffling.

 

Curious Facts

Males have a higher mortality rate than females. By ten years of age, there is a 3:1 ratio of females to males.

It is difficult to study Steller sea lions in the wild, because Steller sea lions are extremely skittish, especially in the winter.

Stones are commonly found in Steller sea lions' stomachs from pebbles to stones up to 12 cm in diameter! Scientists are not certain if these rocks are swallowed by accident or if they serve a useful function. It is speculated that they might help grind up fish, or act as a ballast when diving, or might help ward off hunger pangs when the animals are fasting on shore.

The deepest dive recorded for a Steller sea lion was 424 m.

NEXT: Steller sea lion life span>>>

Metabolic costs of foraging and the management of O2 stores in Steller sea lions.
Fahlman, A., Svärd, C., Rosen, D.A.S., Jones, D.R. and Trites, A.W. (in press).
Journal of Experimental Biology
abstract
The metabolic costs of foraging and the management of O2 stores during breath-hold diving was investigated in three female Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) trained to dive between 10 and 50 m (n=1142 dives). Each trial consisted of 2 to 8 dives separated by surface intervals (SI) that were determined by the sea lion (spontaneous trials) or by the researcher (conditioned trials). During conditioned trials, SI was long enough for O2 to return to pre-dive levels between each dive. The metabolic cost of each dive event (DMR = dive + surface interval) was measured using flow-through respirometry. The respiratory exchange ratio (VCO2 ·VCO2 -1) was significantly lower during spontaneous trials compared with conditioned trials. DMR was significantly higher during spontaneous trials and decreased exponentially with dive duration. A similar decrease in DMR was not as evident during conditioned trials. DMR could not be accurately estimated from the SI following individual dives that had short surface intervals (SI < 50 sec), but could be estimated on a dive by dive basis for longer SIs (SI > 50 sec). DMR decreased by 15%, but did not differ significantly from surface metabolic rates (MRS) when dive duration increased from 1 to 7 min. Overall, these data suggest that DMR is almost the same as MRS, and that Steller sea lions incur an O2 debt during spontaneous diving that is not repaid until the end of the dive bout. This has important consequences in differentiating between the actual and ‘apparent’ metabolic rate during diving, and may explain some of the metabolic differences reported between pinniped species.
Steller sea lions show diet-dependent changes in body composition during nutritional stress and recover more easily from mass loss in winter than in summer.
Jeanniard du Dot, T., Rosen, D. A. S. , Trites, A. W. (in press).
Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology
abstract
Controlled feeding experiments were undertaken with captive Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) to assess seasonal (winter vs. summer) physiological responses of individual animals to reduced quantities and qualities of food that are hypothesised to occur in the wild. Eight animals were randomly divided into two experimental groups fed isocaloric diets: Group H ate Pacific herring (Clupea pallasi) throughout the experiment while Group P was switched to walleye pollock (Theragra chalcogramma) during a 28-day food restriction (after a 28-day baseline) and back to herring during a 28-day controlled re-feeding. Diet type did not impact the rates of body mass lost when food was restricted, but did influence the type of internal energy reserve (protein vs lipids) the sea lions predominantly used. In both summer and winter, Group H lost significantly more lipids and less lean mass than Group P that was fed pollock during the restriction phase. The response of Group H was consistent with the predicted pattern of nutritional stress physiology (i.e. protein sparing and utilization of lipid reserves). Group P lost a surprisingly high proportion of body protein while consuming restricted levels of pollock, which could lead to muscle impairment and vital organ failure on a long-term basis. When given increased amounts of herring during the controlled re-feeding phase, the capacity of both groups to compensate for the previous mass loss was found to depend on season and was independent of previous diet. All of the sea lions increased their rates of mass gain and returned to their pre-experimental weight during winter, but not during summer. Some intrinsic energetic plasticity related to seasonal adaptation to the environment may render winter an easier period than summer to recover from nutritional stress.
Development and application of DNA techniques for validating and improving pinniped diet estimates.
Tollit, D. J., A. D. Schulze, A. W. Trites, P. F. Olesiuk, S. J. Crockford, T. S. Gelatt, R. R. Ream. (in press).
Ecological Applications
abstract
Polymerase chain reaction techniques were developed and applied to identify DNA from >40 species of prey contained in fecal (scat) soft part matrix collected at terrestrial sites used by Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in British Columbia and the Eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska. Sixty percent more fish and cephalopod prey were identified by morphological analyses of hard parts compared with DNA analysis of soft parts (hard parts identified higher relative proportions of Ammodytes sp., Cottidae and certain Gadidae). DNA identified 213 prey occurrences of which 75 (35%) were undetected by hard parts (mainly Salmonidae, Pleuronectidae, Elasmobranchii and Cephalopoda), and thereby increased species occurrences by 22% overall and species richness in 44% of cases (when comparing 110 scats that amplified prey DNA). Prey composition was identical within only 20% of scats. Overall, diet composition derived from both identification techniques combined did not differ significantly from hard part identification alone, suggesting that past scat-based diet studies have not missed major dietary components. However, significant differences in relative diet contributions across scats (as identified using the two techniques separately) reflect passage rate differences between hard and soft digesta material and highlight certain hypothesized limitations in conventional morphological-based methods (e.g., differences in resistance to digestion, hard part regurgitation, partial and secondary prey consumption), as well as potential technical issues (e.g., resolution of primer efficiency and sensitivity, and scat subsampling protocols). DNA analysis of salmon occurrence (from scat soft part matrix and 238 archived salmon hard parts) provided species-level taxonomic resolution that could not be obtained by morphological identification, and showed that Steller sea lions were primarily consuming pink (Oncorhynchus gorbuscha) and chum (Oncorhynchus keta) salmon. Notably, DNA from Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar) that likely originated from a distant fish farm was also detected in two scats from one site in the Eastern Aleutian Islands. Overall, molecular techniques are valuable for identifying prey in the fecal remains of marine predators. Combining DNA and hard part identification will effectively alleviate certain predicted biases, and will ultimately enhance measures of diet richness, fisheries interactions (especially salmon related ones) and the ecological role of pinnipeds and other marine predators, to the benefit of marine wildlife conservationist and fisheries managers.
Economic valuation of critical habitat closures.
Berman, M., E.J. Gregr, G. Ishimura, R. Coatta, R. Flinn, U.R. Sumaila and A.W. Trites. 2008.
In Fisheries Centre Research Reports. Vol 16(8) pp. 102

abstract
We developed methods to estimate the spatial variation in economic values of ocean fisheries, and applied the methods to estimate the cost of closing groundfish fisheries in Steller sea lion Critical Habitat in the Bering Sea and Gulf of Alaska. The research addressed two related goals: (1) explicitly linking spatial variability of fisheries biomass and profitability over time to environmental variables; and (2) developing estimates of opportunity costs of time and area closures to the fishing industry at scales relevant to management. The approach involved two stages of statistical analyses. First, environmental conditions measured at 3 km and 9 km spatial scales and two-week and one-month intervals were used to predict fish biomass and fisheries catch per unit of effort (CPUE). Environmental variables included bathymetry, remotely sensed physical and biological observations, and output from a physical oceanographic circulation model. Second, we used predicted CPUE and spatial regulatory and cost factors to explain the spatial distribution of fishing effort over time. Our results suggested that 2001 Critical Habitat closures cost the North Pacific groundfish trawl fisheries 5-40 percent of their total potential net earnings. The improved methods for estimating opportunity costs of fisheries closures we present have direct applications to evaluating boundary changes to marine protected areas and other spatial management decisions. Limitations include the extensive data requirements and the need to bootstrap confidence intervals. If further research demonstrates the robustness and stability of the estimated relationships over time, the methods could project spatial fishery effects of climate variability and change, leading to dynamic spatial models linking fisheries with ecosystems.
Buoyancy does not affect diving metabolism during shallow dives in Steller sea lions Eumetopias jubatus.
Fahlman, A., G.D. Hastie, D.A.S. Rosen, Y. Naito and A.W. Trites. 2008.
Aquatic Biology 3:147-154.
abstract
hanges in buoyancy due to seasonal or abnormal changes in body composition are thought to significantly affect the energy budget of marine mammals through changes in diving costs. We assessed how changes in body composition might alter the foraging efficiency of Steller sea lions Eumetopias jubatus by artificially adjusting the buoyancy of trained individuals. PVC tubes were attached to harnesses worn by Steller sea lions that had been trained to feed at fixed depths (10 to 30 m) and to resurface inside a metabolic dome. Buoyancy was altered to simulate the naturally occurring differences in body composition reported in adult females (~12 to 26% subcutaneous fat). Diving characteristics (transit times and time at depth) and aerobic energy expenditure (gas exchange) were measured. We found that foraging cost decreased with the duration of the dive and increased with dive depth. However, changes in body composition did not affect the diving metabolic rate of Steller sea lions for dives between 10 and 30 m. We propose that Steller sea lions may adjust their diving lung volume to compensate for changes in buoyancy to avoid additional metabolic costs.
Activity and diving metabolism correlate in Steller sea lion Eumetopias jubatus.
Fahlman, A., R. Wilson, C. Svärd, D.A.S. Rosen and A.W. Trites. 2008.
Aquatic Biology 2:75-84.
abstract
Three Steller sea lions Eumetopias jubatus were trained to participate in free-swimming, open-ocean experiments designed to determine if activity can be used to estimate the energetic cost of finding prey at depth. Sea lions were trained to dive to fixed depths of 10 to 50 m, and to re-surface inside a floating dome to measure energy expenditure via gas exchange. A 3-axis accelerometer was attached to the sea lions during foraging. Acceleration data were used to determine the overall dynamic body acceleration (ODBA), a proxy for activity. Results showed that ODBA correlated well with the diving metabolic rate (dive + surface interval) and that the variability in the relationship (r2 = 0.47, linear regression including Sea lion as a random factor) was similar to that reported for other studies that used heart rate to estimate metabolic rate for sea lions swimming underwater in a 2 m deep water channel. A multivariate analysis suggested that both ODBA and dive duration were important for predicting diving metabolic cost, but ODBA alone predicted foraging cost to within 7% between animals. Consequently,collecting 3-dimensional acceleration data is a simple technique to estimate field metabolic rate of wild Steller sea lions and other diving mammals and birds.
A novel presence-only validation technique for improved Steller sea lion Eumetopias jubatus critical habitat descriptions.
Gregr, E.J. and A.W. Trites. 2008.
Marine Ecology Progress Series 365:247-261.
abstract
We used published information about foraging behaviour, terrestrial resting sites, bathymetry, and seasonal ocean climate to develop hypotheses relating life history traits and physical variables to the at-sea habitat of a wide-ranging marine predator, the Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus). We used the hypotheses to develop a series of habitat models that predicted the probability of sea lions occurring within 3 x 3 km2 grids overlaid on the Gulf of Alaska and Bering Sea; and compared these deductive model predictions with opportunistic at-sea observations of sea lions (presence-only data) using 1) a likelihood approach in a small area where effort was assumed to be uniformly distributed, and 2) an adjusted skewness (Skadj) test that evaluated the distribution of the predicted values associated with true presence observations. We found the Skadj statistic was comparable to the likelihood test when using pseudo-absence data, but it was more powerful for assessing the relative performance of the different predictive spatial models. We also found that the habitat maps we produced for adult female sea lions using the deductive modelling approach captured a higher proportion of presence observations than the current habitat model (Critical Habitat) used by fisheries managers since 1993 to manage Steller sea lions. Such improved predictions of habitat are necessary to effectively design, implement, and evaluate fishery mitigation measures. The deductive approach we propose is suitable for modelling the habitat use of other age- and sex- classes, and for integrating these age/sex class specific models into a revised definition of Critical Habitat for Steller sea lions. It can also be readily used to identify the at-sea habitat of other central place foragers.
Evaluating network analysis indicators of ecosystem status in the Gulf of Alaska.
Heymans, S.J.J., S. Guénette and V. Christensen. 2008.
Ecosystems 10:488-502.
abstract
This is the first study on the emergent properties for empirical ecosystem models that have been validated by time series information. Ecosystem models of the western and central Aleutian Islands and Southeast Alaska were used to examine indices of ecosystem status generated from network analysis and incorporated into Ecopath with Ecosim. Dynamic simulations of the two ecosystems over the past 40 years were employed to examine if these indices reflect the dissimilar changes that occurred in the ecosystems. The results showed that the total systems throughput (TST) and ascendency (A) followed the climate change signature (Pacific decadal oscillation, PDO) in both ecosystems, while the redundancy (R) followed the inverse trend. The different trajectories for important species such as Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus), Atka mackerel (Pleurogrammus monopterygius), pollock (Theragra chalcograma), herring (Clupea pallasii), Pacific cod (Gadus macrocephalus) and halibut (Hippoglossus stenolepis) were noticeable in the Finn cycling index (FCI), entropy (H) and average mutual information (AMI): not showing large change during the time that the Stellers sea lions, herring, Pacific cod, halibut and arrowtooth flounder (Atheresthes stomias) increased in Southeast Alaska, but showing large declines during the decline of Steller sea lions, sharks, Atka mackerel and arrowtooth flounder in the Aleutians. On the whole, there was a change in the emergent properties of the Aleutians around 1976 that was not seen in Southeast Alaska. Conversely, the emergent properties of both systems showed a change around 1988, which indicated that both systems were unstable after 1988.
Hormone changes indicate that winter is a critical period for food shortages in Steller sea lions.
Rosen, D.A.S., Kumagai, S. 2008.
Journal of Comparative Physiology B 178:573-583.
abstract
Given that many marine mammals display seasonal energetic priorities, it is important to investigate whether the impact of unexpected food restriction differs during the year. Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) fed restricted diets for up to 9 days during spring, summer, fall, and winter lost an average of 10% of their initial body mass. We tracked changes in the levels of three hormones (cortisol, total thyroxine—TT4, total triiodothyronine—TT3) and one blood metabolite (blood urea nitrogen—BUN) following a food restriction in relation to season, body mass, body composition, and metabolism. Degree of changes in cortisol, TT3, and BUN after food restriction was significantly affected by season. The greatest changes in cortisol (+231%), BUN (+11.4%), TT4 (-23.3%), and TT3 (-35.6%) occurred in the winter (November/December) when rates of body mass loss were also greatest. Changes in cortisol levels were positively related to total body mass loss, while changes in TT3 levels were negatively related. While greater increases in BUN were related to greater rates of mass loss, the use of BUN levels as an indicator of metabolic state is complicated by the type and level of food intake. The observed changes in hormone levels support morphological data suggesting Steller sea lions may be more strongly impacted by short-term, reduced energy intake during winter than at other times of the year.

keywords     178:573-583
Diets of mature male and female Steller sea lions differ and cannot be used as proxies for each other.
Trites, A.W., and D.G. Calkins. 2008.
Aquatic Mammals 34:25-34.
abstract
Disturbance of otariid breeding sites (rookeries) to determine diet from fecal remains (scats) could be eliminated if the diets of males using adjoining bachelor haulouts could be used as a proxy for diets of breeding females. We collected scats from sexually mature Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) at one male resting site (haulout) and three female dominated breeding sites (rookeries) at Forrester Island, Southeast Alaska (June-July, 1994–1999) to test whether the diets of bachelor bulls differed from that of breeding females. Female diets were fairly evenly distributed between gadids, salmon and small oily fishes (forage fish), and contained lesser amounts of rockfish, flatfish, cephalopods and other fishes. Female diet did not differ significantly between the 3 rookeries, but did differ significantly from that of males. Males consumed significantly fewer salmon, and more pollock, flatfish and rockfish compared to females. The males also consumed larger pollock compared to females. These dietary differences may reflect a sex-specific difference in foraging areas or differences in hunting abilities related to the disparity in physical sizes of males and females. The similarity of the female diets between rookeries suggests that female diets can be determined from samples collected at a single site within a rookery complex. Unfortunately, summer diets of breeding females cannot be ascertained from hard parts contained in the scats of mature male Steller sea lions.
Quantification of terrestrial haul-out and rookery characteristics of Steller sea lions.
Ban, S. and A.W. Trites. 2007.
Marine Mammal Science 23:496-507.
abstract
Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus)are known to have occupied the same terrestrial haul-out and rookery sites across the North Pacific rim for centuries, but it is not known why they choose and stay at these locations, or what defines their preferred habitat. Classifying and comparing the shoreline type of haulouts and rookeries against sites not used by Steller sea lions showed that they preferentially locate their haulouts and rookeries on exposed rocky shorelines and wave-cut platforms. However, no preference was found for selecting rookeries on sheltered shore-types. Shoreline types used less frequently by sea lions included fine-to-medium-grained sand beaches, mixed sand and gravel beaches, gravel beaches, and sheltered rocky shores. Quantifying the shoreline types used by sea lions confirms anecdotal reports of habitat preferences and may prove useful in identifying and protecting sea lion terrestrial habitat, or in forecasting how climate change might affect the distribution of sea lions.
Turning maneuvers in Steller sea lions (Eumatopias jubatus).
Cheneval, O., R. W. Blake, A. W. Trites and K. H. S. Chan. 2007.
Marine Mammal Science 23:94-109.
abstract
Steller sea lions are highly maneuverable marine mammals (expressed as minimum turning radius). Video recordings of turns (n=195) are analyzed from kinematic measurements for three captive animals. Speed-time plots of 180° turns have a typical ?V-shape?. The sea lions decelerated during the first half of the turn, reached a minimum speed in the middle of the curved trajectory and re-accelerated by adduction of the pectoral flippers. The initial deceleration was greater than that for passive gliding due to pectoral flipper braking and/or change in body contour from a stiff, straight streamlined form. Centripetal force and thrust were determined from the body acceleration. Most thrust was produced during the power phase of the pectoral flipper stroke cycle. Contrary to previous findings on otariids, little or no thrust was generated during initial abduction of the pectoral flippers and during the final drag-based paddling phase of the stroke cycle. Peak thrust force! at the center of gravity occurs halfway through the power phase while the centripetal force is maximal at the beginning of the power stroke. Performance is modulated by changes in the duration and intensity of movements without changing their sequence. Turning radius, maximum velocity, maximum acceleration and turning duration were 0.3 body lengths, 3.5 m/s, 5 m/s2 and 1.6 s respectively. The relative maneuverability based on velocity and length specific minimum turning radius is comparable to other otariids, superior to cetaceans but inferior to many fish.
Quantitative analysis of prey DNA in pinniped faeces: potential to estimate diet composition?
Deagle, B.E. and D.J. Tollit. 2007.
Conservation Genetics 8:743-747.
abstract
Recent studies have shown prey DNA can be consistently recovered from faeces and effectively used to provide dietary information. We investigate the possibility of using the relative amounts of DNA recovered from different prey in faeces to obtain quantitative diet composition data. Faecal samples were obtained from captive Steller seas lions (Eumetopias jubatus) being fed a fish diet consisting of 50% Pacific herring (Clupea pallasii), 36% surf smelt (Hypomesus pretiosus) and 14% sockeye salmon (Oncorhynchus nerka) by mass. Quantitative real-time PCR was used to measure the amount of mtDNA from the three fish species in: (i) a blended tissue mix representative of the sea lion diet and (ii) the sea lion faecal samples. The percent composition of fish mtDNA extracted from the undigested tissue samples corresponded reasonably well to the mass of fish in the mixture. In the faecal samples (n = 23) the absolute amount of fish mtDNA recovered varied 100-fold, but the percent composition of the three fish was relatively consistent (57.5 ± 9.3% for herring, 19.3 ± 6.6% for smelt and 23.2 ± 12.2% for salmon). Differences between the mtDNA proportions in the tissue samples compared to the faecal samples indicate there are prey-specific biases in DNA survival during digestion. These biases may be less than those commonly observed in the conventional analysis of prey hard remains. Further investigation of this approach is warranted.
Population trends, diet, genetics, and observations of Steller sea lions in Glacier Bay National Park.
Gelatt, T., A.W.Trites, K. Hastings, L. Jemison, K. Pitcher, and G. O’Corry-Crowe. 2007.
In J.F. Piatt and S.M. Gende (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth Glacier Bay Science Symposium, U.S. Geological Survey, Juneau , Alaska. pp. 145-149.
abstract
We are using demographics, scat analysis, and genetic measurements of Steller sea lions (SSLs)to understand the factors affecting population status throughout Alaska. Steller sea lions are listed as threatened throughout Southeast Alaska including Glacier Bay National Park where they frequent at least five terrestrial sites, including a recently established rookery on Graves Rock. Breeding season counts in GBNP increased at ~6 percent/yr between 1989 and 2002. Brand resighting during 2003 revealed 16 western stock SSLs seen within the park. Survival to two months of age was 90 percent. Fifty pups were branded at Graves Rock in 2002. It is necessary to mark more animals to estimate annual survival rates of juveniles and adults. Sandlance and pollock were top prey items at Graves Rock and South Marble Island. Mitochondrial DNA analysis indicates that the Graves Rock rookery was established in part by females from the western sea lion stock (west of 144° W longitude).
Ecosystem models of the Aleutian Islands and Southeast Alaska show that Steller sea lions are impacted by killer whale predation when sea lion numbers are low.
Guénette, S., S.J.J. Heymans, V. Christensen, A.W. Trites. 2007.
In J.F. Piatt and S.M. Gende (eds), Proceedings of the Fourth Glacier Bay Science Symposium, U.S. Geological Survey, Juneau , Alaska. pp. 150-154.
abstract
We constructed ecosystem models using the Ecopath with Ecosim software to evaluate whether predation by killer whales might explain the decline of Steller sea lions since the late 1970s in the western Aleutian Islands. We also sought to understand why sea lions increased in the presence of killer whales in Southeast Alaska. Modeling results reproduced the time series of abundances for exploited species and sea lions in both ecosystems. Simulation results suggest that killer whale predation contributed to the decline of sea lions in the western Aleutians, but that predation was not the primary cause of the population decline. Predation could however have become a significant source of mortality during the 1990s when sea lions numbers were much lower. In Southeast Alaska, predation was also found to be a significant source of mortality in the 1960s when sea lions were low, but ceased to control population growth through the 1980s and 1990s. Overall, the ecosystem models suggest that large populations of Steller sea lions can withstand predation, but that small populations are vulnerable to killer whales.
Reductions in oxygen consumption during dives and estimated submergence limitations of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus).
Hastie, G.D., D.A.S. Rosen and A.W. Trites. 2007.
Marine Mammal Science 23:272-286.
abstract
Accurate estimates of diving metabolic rate are central to assessing the energy needs of marine mammals. To circumvent some of the limitations inherent with conducting energy studies in both the wild and captivity, we measured diving oxygen consumption of two trained Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in the open ocean. The animals dived to predetermined depths (5–30 m) for controlled periods of time (50–200 s). Rates of oxygen consumption were measured using open-circuit respirometry before and after each dive. Mean resting rates of oxygen consumption prior to the dives were 1.34 (±0.18) and 1.95 (±0.19) liter/min for individual sea lions. Mean rates of oxygen consumption during the dives were 0.71 (±0.24) and 1.10 (±0.39) liter/min, respectively. Overall, rates of oxygen consumption during dives were significantly lower (45% and 41%) than the corresponding rates measured before dives. These results provide the first estimates of diving oxygen consumption rate for Steller sea lions and show that this species can exhibit a marked decrease in oxygen consumption relative to surface rates while submerged. This has important consequences in the evaluation of physiological limitations associated with diving such as dive duration and subsequent interpretations of diving behavior in the wild.
Comparison of fatty acid profiles of spawning and non-spawning Pacific herring, Clupea harengus pallasi.
Huynh, M.D., D.D. Kitts, C. Hu and A.W. Trites. 2007.
Journal of Comparative Biochemistry and Physiology, Part B 146:504-511.
abstract
Crude lipid and fatty acid composition from liver, intestine, roe, milt and flesh of spawning and non-spawning Pacific herring Clupea harengus pallasi were examined to determine the relative effects of spawning on the nutritional value of herring. Depletion of lipid due to spawning condition was significant (Pb0.01) in all organ tissues and flesh of spawning herring. The lipid content ranged from an average of 1.9 to 3.4% (wet weight basis) in different organ tissues of spawning herring, to 10.5 to 16% in non-spawning fish. The fatty acid profile exhibited many differences in the relative distribution of individual fatty acids among organ tissues and between the two fish groups. Oleic acid (C18:1n-9), a major monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA) found in all tissue lipids, decreased significantly (Pb0.01) in spawning fish. The two monoenes, C20:1n-9 and C22:1n-11, occurred at high concentrations in the flesh but at only minor proportion in the digestive organs and gonads. Spawning herring also had significantly (Pb0.01) higher polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) content in the organ tissues, particularly in the milt and ovary, with docosahexaenoic acid (C22:6n-3, DHA) having the greatest proportion. Among the n-6 fatty acids, only C18:2n-6 and C20:4n-6 occurred at notable amounts and were present in higher proportions in spawning fish. We concluded that although relatively higher n-3 fatty acid content was found in the organ lipids of spawning herring, they are not an energy-dense prey food source due to the fact that both flesh and gonads contain a very low amount of lipid.
Diet quality and season affect physiology and energetic priorities of captive Steller sea lions during and after periods of nutritional stress.
Jeanniard du Dot, T. 2007.
MSc Thesis, University of British Columbia, Vancouver. 142 pages
abstract
The ability of animals to contend with unpredictable seasonal shifts in quality and quantity of prey has implications for the conservation of wildlife. Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) were subjected to different quantities and qualities of food to determine what physiological and endocrine responses would occur and whether they differed between season (summer and winter) or diet (high-lipid Pacific herring Clupea pallasi vs. low-lipid walleye pollock Theragra chalcogramma). Eight females were divided among two groups. One (Group H) were fed herring for 28 days (baseline), then received a reduced caloric intake for a subsequent 28 days (restriction) to induce a 15% loss of body mass. The second (Group P) were also fed herring during the baseline followed by a reduced isocaloric diet of pollock during the restriction. Both groups subsequently returned to their baseline intake of herring for a 28-day controlled re-feeding. The two groups of sea lions lost identical mass during restrictions independent of species eaten, but did differ in the type of internal energy reserve (protein vs. lipids) they predominantly used. Group H lost significantly more lipids and less lean mass than Group P in both seasons. In summer, Group H also increased activity levels and decreased thermoregulation capacity to optimize energy allocation. No such changes were observed for Group P whose capacity to adjust to the reduced caloric intake seemed to have been blocked by the pollock diet. During winter, the sea lions spared energy allocated to activity (especially Group H) and preserved thermoregulation capacity. Changes in body mass was negatively related to free cortisol and positively related to IGF-1 in winter, but only IGF-1 was related to changes in mass in summer when lean mass regulation seemed more important. Levels of IGF-1 were associated with changes in protein metabolism in both seasons for both groups, but changes in body condition were never explained by the measured metabolites or hormones. The cap! acity to compensate for mass loss was seasonally dependent with sea lions displaying compensatory growth (by restoring lipid stores) in winter but not in summer. Summer appears to be a more difficult season for sea lions to recover from mild nutritional stress. These physiological findings can be used to refine bioenergetic models needed for the conservation of Steller sea lion populations.
Utilization of stored energy reserves during fasting varies by age and season in Steller sea lions.
Rea, L.D., D.A.S. Rosen and A.W Trites. 2007.
Canadian Journal of Zoology 85:190-200.
abstract
Nine captive Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus (Schreber, 1776), 1.75–6 years of age) were fasted for 7–14 d to test the effect of short-term fasting on changes in body mass and body condition. Trials were repeated during both the summer breeding season and the nonbreeding season in seven animals to elucidate whether there was a seasonal component to the ability of Steller sea lions to adapt to limited food resources. Mean percent mass loss per day was higher during the breeding season in juveniles (1.8% ± 0.2%·d–1) than in subadults (1.2% ± 0.1%·d–1), but there were no significant age-related differences during the nonbreeding season (juveniles, 1.5% ± 0.3%·d–1; subadults, 1.7% ± 0.3%·d–1). A decrease in the rate of mass loss occurred after the first 3 d of fasting only in subadults during the breeding season. Percent total body lipid ranged from 11% to 28% of total body mass at the initiation of fasting trials. Animals with lower initial percent total body lipid exhibited higher subsequent rates of mass loss and a lower percentage of tissue catabolism derived from lipid reserves. There was no evidence of metabolic adaptation to fasting in juveniles, which suggests that juvenile sea lions would be more negatively impacted by food limitation during the breeding season than would subadults.
Impact of diet index selection and the digestion of prey hard remains on determining the diet of the Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus).
Tollit, D.J., S.G. Heaslip, R.L. Barrick and A.W. Trites. 2007.
Canadian Journal of Zoology 85:1-15.
abstract
Abstract: Nine prey species (n = 7,431) were fed to four captive female Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus (Schreber, 1776)) in eleven feeding trials over 75 days to investigate the effectiveness of different methods used to determine diet from prey hard remains. Trials aimed to replicate short (1-2 day) and long feeding bouts and consisted of single species and mixed daily diets. Overall, an average of 25.2% ± 22.2% (mean ± SD, range 0-83%) of otoliths were recovered, but recovery rates varied by species (ANOVA, P = 0.01) and were linearly related to otolith robustness (R2 = 0.88). Squid beaks were recovered at higher frequencies (mean = 96%) than the otoliths of all species. Enumerating both non-otolith skeletal structures and otoliths (together termed ?bones?) increased species recovery rates by twofold on average (P < 0.001), with increases up to 2.5 times for herring and 3-4 times for salmonids. Using bones reduced inter-specific differences (P = 0.08), but recovery ! varied among sea lions. Bones were distributed over more scats per meal (mean = 2.9 scats, range = 0-5) than otoliths (mean = 1.9 scats, range = 0-4). In three different 15-day mixed diet trials, biomass reconstruction (BR) indices performed better than frequency of occurrence indices in predicting diet fed. Applying our experimentally derived numerical correction factors (to account for species differences in complete prey digestion) further improved BR estimates, resulting in all twelve unweighted comparisons within 5% (for otoliths) and 12% (for bones) of the actual diet fed.
Bottom-up forcing and the decline of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in Alaska: assessing the ocean climate hypothesis.
Trites, A. W., A. J. Miller, H. D. G. Maschner, M. A. Alexander, S. J. Bograd, J. A. Calder, A. Capotondi, K. O. Coyle, E. D. Lorenzo, B. P. Finney, E. J. Gregr, C. E. Grosch, S. R. Hare, G. L. Hunt, J. Jahncke, N. B. Kachel, H.-J. Kim, C. Ladd, N. J. Mantua, C. Marzban, W. Maslowski, R. Mendelssohn, D. J. Neilson, S. R. Okkonen, J. E. Overland, K. L. Reedy-Maschner, T. C. Royer, F. B. Schwing, J. X. L. Wang and A. J. Winship. 2007.
Fisheries Oceanography 16:46-67.
abstract
Declines of Steller sea lion (Eumetopias jubatus) populations in the Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska could be a consequence of physical oceanographic changes associated with the 1976-77 climate regime shift. Changes in ocean climate are hypothesized to have affected the quantity, quality and accessibility of prey, which in turn may have affected the rates of birth and death of sea lions. Recent studies of the spatial and temporal variations in the ocean climate system of the North Pacific support this hypothesis. Ocean climate changes appear to have created adaptive opportunities for various species that are preyed upon by Steller sea lions at mid-trophic levels. The east-west asymmetry of the oceanic response to climate forcing after 1976-77 is consistent with both the temporal aspect (populations decreased after the late 1970's) and the spatial aspect of the decline (western, but not eastern, sea lion populations decreased). These broad-scale climate variations appear to be modulated by regionally sensitive biogeographic structures along the Aleutian Islands and Gulf of Alaska, which include a transition point from coastal to open-ocean conditions at Samalga Pass westward along the Aleutian Islands. These transition points delineate distinct clusterings of different combinations of prey species, which are in turn correlated with differential population sizes and trajectories of Steller sea lions. Archaeological records spanning 4000 years further indicate that sea lion populations have experienced major shifts in abundance in the past. Shifts in ocean climate are the most parsimonious underlying explanation for the broad suite of ecosystem changes that have been observed in the North Pacific Ocean in recent decades.
Killer whales, whaling and sequential megafaunal collapse in the North Pacific: a comparative analysis of the dynamics of marine mammals in Alaska and British Columbia following commercial whaling.
Trites, A. W., V. B. Deecke, E. J. Gregr, J. K. B. Ford, and P. F. Olesiuk. 2007.
Marine Mammal Science 23:751-765.
abstract
The hypothesis that commercial whaling caused a sequential megafaunal collapse in the North Pacific Ocean by forcing killer whales to eat progressively smaller species of marine mammals is not supported by what is known about the biology of large whales, the ecology of killer whales and the patterns of ecosystem change that took place in Alaska, British Columbia, and elsewhere in the world following whaling. A comparative analysis shows that populations of seals, sea lions and sea otters increased in British Columbia following commercial whaling, unlike the declines noted in the Gulf of Alaska and Aleutian Islands. The declines of seals and sea lions that began in western Alaska around 1977 were mirrored by increases in numbers of these species in British Columbia. A more likely explanation is the seal and sea lion declines and other ecosystem changes in Alaska stems from a major oceanic regime shift that occurred in 1977. Killer whales are unquestionably a significant predator of seals, sea lions and sea otters but not because of commercial whaling.
Diets of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) in Southeast Alaska from 1993-1999.
Trites, A.W., D.G Calkins and A.J. Winship. 2007.
Fishery Bulletin 105:234-248.
abstract
Diet of Steller sea lions (Eumetopias jubatus) was determined from 1494 scats (feces) collected at breedi